South Indian history Tnpsc Samacheer Notes

A . Pallavas

Sources

• Epigraphical Charters by Period:
  • First Line (250–350 A.D.): Issued charters in Prakrit, including prominent rulers Sivaskandavarman and Vijayaskandavarman.
  • Second Line (350–550 A.D.): Issued charters in Sanskrit; notably Vishnugopa, who was defeated by Samudragupta during his South Indian campaign.
  • Third Line (from 575 A.D. to 9th Century): Began with Simhavishnu and issued charters in both Sanskrit and Tamil.
• Inscriptions:
  • Kuram Copper Plates: Mention the victory of Narasimhavarman I over Pulakesin II at the Battle of Manimangalam.
  • Mandagappattu Inscription: Praises Mahendravarman I as Vichitrachitta for constructing a temple for Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva without brick, timber, metal, or mortar.
  • Music Inscriptions: The Kudumianmalai inscription (ascribed to Mahendravarman I) references musical notes and instruments, while the Mamandur inscription records notations on vocal music.
• Foreign Accounts:
  • Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang visited Kanchipuram during the reign of Narasimhavarman I and documented detailed observations of the city, its monasteries, and its culture of learning.
• Literary Sources:
  • Sanskrit play Mattavilasa Prahasanam by Mahendravarman I.
  • Tamil religious collections: Devaram (composed by Saiva Nayanmars) and Nalayiradivyaprabandam (composed by Vaishnava Alwars).
  • Bharathavenba (Tamil translation of the Mahabharata) written by Perundevanar under the patronage of Nandivarman II, alongside the anonymous work Nandikkalambagam.

Administration

• Central Hierarchy:
  • The king stood as the centre of administration and the supreme fountain of justice, assisted by able ministers.
  • Maintained a well-trained army for territorial defense and expansion.
• Territorial Division:
  • The Pallava kingdom was divided into administrative units known as Kottams, governed by officers appointed directly by the crown.
• Revenue and Taxation:
  • Land tax served as the primary source of revenue.
  • Lands donated to temples (Devadhana) and Brahmans (Brahmadeya) were completely exempt from taxes.
  • Taxes were also levied on traders and specialized artisans, such as carpenters, goldsmiths, washermen, oil-pressers, and weavers.
• Irrigation Initiatives:
  • State administration oversaw the construction and maintenance of major irrigation infrastructure.
  • King Mahendravarman I commissioned the digging of extensive irrigation tanks at Mahendravadi and Mamandoor.
• Village Governance:
  • Village assemblies known as sabhas functioned through specialized committees.
  • The committees managed local affairs, maintained property records of village lands, and oversaw the upkeep of local temples.

Social, Economic, and Cultural Conditions

• Social Conditions:
  • The Tamil social structure became increasingly rigid, establishing the caste system firmly with Brahmins occupying the highest tier.
  • Royal grants of land (Brahmadeya) and key responsibilities over temple operations elevated the social and economic status of Brahmins.
• Economic Conditions:
  • Agriculture was anchored by state-sponsored irrigation tanks.
  • Artisans and mercantile classes maintained active occupational networks, contributing to state revenues through profession-based levies.
  • Maritime trade flourished, especially during the reign of Narasimhavarman II (Rajasimha), who dispatched diplomatic and commercial embassies to China.
• Religious Life (Bhakti Movement):
  • Saivism and Vaishnavism experienced a massive revival, leading to a direct decline in the influence of Buddhism and Jainism.
  • Saiva Nayanmars and Vaishnava Alwars spearheaded the Bhakti Movement, popularizing faith and intense personal devotion through vernacular Tamil devotional hymns.
  • Royalty actively shifted allegiances; Mahendravarman I abandoned Jainism for Saivism under the influence of Saiva saint Thirunavukkarasar (Appar).
• Education and Learning:
  • Kanchipuram became a prestigious educational seat hosting the famous Ghatika, drawing scholars across India and abroad.
  • Kadamba founder Mayurasarman studied Vedic texts at Kanchi.
  • Renowned Buddhist scholar Dignaga studied at Kanchi, and Dharmapala (later head of Nalanda University) hailed from the city.
  • Notable Sanskrit literary masters flourished: Bharavi lived during Simhavishnu’s era, and Dandin was patronized by Rajasimha.
• Fine Arts:
  • Music and dance saw widespread royal patronage; the text/commentary Dakshinchitra was compiled under Mahendravarman I (who held the title Chitrakarapuli).
  • Fresco and rock paintings were executed at sites such as Sittannavasal.
  • Temple sculptures captured dynamic classical dance poses and depictions.
• Four Stages of Pallava Temple Architecture:
  • Stage I (Rock-cut Caves): Initiated by Mahendravarman I at Mandagappattu, Mahendravadi, Mamandur, Dalavanur, Tiruchirappalli, Vallam, Siyamangalam, and Tirukalukkunram.
  • Stage II (Monolithic Rathas and Mandapas): Developed under Narasimhavarman I at Mamallapuram; included the five Panchapandava rathas (illustrating distinct architectural styles) and sculpted mandapas such as Mahishasuramardhini, Tirumurthi, and Varaha.
  • Stage III (Early Structural Temples): Introduced by Rajasimha using soft sand rocks; represented by the Shore Temple at Mamallapuram and the Kailasanatha temple at Kanchi (the masterpiece of Pallava art).
  • Stage IV (Later Structural Temples): Built by later Pallava kings, including the Vaikundaperumal, Muktheeswara, and Matagenswara temples at Kanchipuram.
• Open-Air Bas-Relief Sculpture:
  • The Open Art Gallery at Mamallapuram includes The Descent of the Ganges (or Penance of Arjuna), famed as a “fresco painting in stone” with depictions of elephants, a lice-picking monkey, and the erect “ascetic cat”.

B. Chalukyas – Development of Arts

• Vesara Architectural Style:
  • Developed the Vesara style in structural temple architecture, which later reached culmination under the Rashtrakutas and Hoysalas.
• Cave Temples and Murals:
  • Excavated rock-cut cave temples at Ajanta, Ellora, and Nasik.
  • Produced paintings in the Badami cave temples and Ajanta caves.
  • An Ajanta mural portrays Pulakesin II receiving a Persian embassy.
• Stage I – Aihole and Badami:
  • Aihole contains roughly seventy structural temples, led by four prominent specimens:
    • Ladh Khan temple: A low, flat-roofed structure with a pillared hall.
    • Durga temple: Sculptural layout resembling a Buddhist Chaitya.
    • Huchimalligudi temple.
    • Meguti Jain temple.
  • Badami features notable temples such as the Muktheeswara temple and the Melagutti Sivalaya.
  • Badami contains four rock-cut cave temples displaying walls and pillared halls decorated with sculptures of deities and humans.
• Stage II – Pattadakal:
  • Features ten structural temples exhibiting a confluence of architectural styles:
    • Northern Style (4 temples): Exemplified by the Papanatha temple.
    • Dravidian Style (6 temples): Exemplified by the Sangamesvara temple and the Virupaksha temple.
  • The Virupaksha temple was built by a queen of Vikramaditya II on the model of Kanchi’s Kailasanatha temple, employing master craftsmen brought directly from Kanchipuram.

C. Rashtrakutas – Contribution to Arts

• Kailasa Temple at Ellora (Cave 16):
  • Excavated under the patronage of Krishna I as a monolithic rock-cut structure carved entirely from a single rock block (200 ft long, 100 ft wide, 100 ft high).
  • Stands on a 25-foot-high plinth adorned with central carvings of elephants and lions that appear to carry the entire superstructure.
  • Follows a Dravidian layout with four structural components: the main sanctum, an entrance gateway, an intermediate Nandi shrine, and surrounding cloistered mandapas.
  • Features a three-tiered sikhara reminiscent of the monolithic rathas at Mamallapuram.
  • Interior pillared hall contains sixteen square monolithic pillars.
  • Walls contain narrative reliefs, including Goddess Durga slaying the Buffalo demon, Ravana attempting to shake and lift Mount Kailasa, and multiple scenes from the Ramayana.
• Elephanta Island Sculptures:
  • Located on an island near Mumbai originally known as Sripuri (renamed Elephanta by the Portuguese after its colossal stone elephant).
  • Features massive dwara-palaka sentinels guarding the sanctum entrance.
  • Prakara wall niches depict Shiva in various manifestations: Nataraja, Gangadhara, Ardhanareesvara, and Somaskanda.
  • Houses the 6-metre-high Trimurthi sculpture, representing Shiva’s three cosmic aspects as Creator, Preserver, and Destroyer.
• Literary Arts:
  • Sanskrit Patronage: Trivikrama composed the Nalachampu; Halayudha authored Kavirahasya during Krishna III’s reign; Jinasena wrote Parsvabhudaya; Gunabhadra authored the Adipurana; Sakatayana composed the grammatical treatise Amogavritti; Viracharya compiled the mathematical work Ganitasaram.
  • Kannada Emergence: King Amoghavarsha I penned Kavirajamarga, the earliest poetic work in the Kannada language. Pampa composed Vikramasenavijaya, and Ponna wrote Santipurana.

D. Cholas – Social, Economic, and Cultural Conditions

Social Conditions

• Caste Stratification:
  • The caste system was firmly established, with Brahmins and Kshatriyas enjoying distinct state privileges.
  • Later Chola inscriptions record the societal bifurcation into two broad caste alignments: Valangai (Right-Hand) and Idangai (Left-Hand) groups, though inter-caste cooperation endured in civic and religious functions.
• Status of Women:
  • Women’s social position did not see significant advancement.
  • The practice of sati was prevalent among royal families.
  • The devadasi system (temple dancing women dedicated to religious service) emerged and became institutionalized.

Economic Conditions

• Agricultural Foundation and Expansion:
  • Widespread clearance and reclamation of forest tracts brought large areas under cultivation.
  • Irrigation infrastructure was systematically maintained through tanks, channels, and water reservoirs like the Cholagangam tank dug by Rajendra I.
• Industries and Crafts:
  • Weaving flourished into a major organized industry, highlighted by the high-grade silk-weaving networks of Kanchipuram.
  • Metalworking reached advanced levels due to the demand for bronze icons and ceremonial temple utensils.
• Commerce and Trade Networks:
  • Domestic transit was supported by trunk roads (peruvazhis) and organized merchant guilds.
  • The crown minted gold, silver, and copper coins across various denominations.
  • Dynamic maritime trade connected the empire with China, Sumatra, Java, and Arabia.
  • Large numbers of Arabian war horses were imported to equip Chola cavalry regiments.
  • Urban trading guilds operated in designated market cities (nagaram) administered by bodies called nagarattar.

Cultural Conditions

• Religion and Temples as Socio-Economic Hubs:
  • Both Saivism and Vaishnavism flourished, receiving endowments, revenue grants, and architectural patronage from royal houses.
  • Temples were not only places of worship but served as large centres of economic activity, employing artisans, musicians, dancers, administrators, and treasuries.
  • Religious mathas held considerable institutional and educational influence.
• Education:
  • Advanced educational centers and colleges functioned at Ennayiram, Thirumukkudal, and Thirubhuvanai.
  • Curriculum extended beyond the Vedas and Epics to encompass specialized studies in mathematics and medicine, supported by dedicated land grants.
• Literature:
  • Represents the golden age of Tamil literature:
    • Sivakasintamani (by Thiruthakkadevar) and Kundalakesi (10th century).
    • Kamban’s Ramayana and Sekkilar’s Periyapuranam (Tiruttondarpuranam).
    • Jayankondar’s Kalingattupparani (depicting Kulottunga I’s war) and Ottakuthar’s Moovarula (chronicling three Chola kings).
    • Pugalendi’s Nalavenba.
    • Grammar treatises: Kalladam (by Kalladanar), Yapperungalam (by Amirthasagarar), Nannul (by Pavanandhi), and Virasoliyam (by Buddhamitra).
• Temple Architecture (Vimana Tradition):
  • Culmination of the Dravidian style, characterized by tall towers over the sanctum (vimana).
  • Early architectural specimens: Temples at Narthamalai, Kodumbalur, and Srinivasanallur.
  • Brihadeeswara Temple (Big Temple) at Tanjore: Built by Rajaraja I (completed 1010 A.D.); features a massive vimana, ardhamandapa, mahamandapa, and an open Nandimandapa.
  • Gangaikondacholapuram Temple: Constructed by Rajendra I to mirror the grandeur of Tanjore.
  • Later Chola temples: Airavathesvara temple at Darasuram and Kampaharesvara temple at Tribhuvanam.
• Sculpture and Bronze Casting:
  • Temple walls were decorated with life-sized, sculpted stone icons.
  • Lost-wax bronze casting produced celebrated art, most notably the iconic representations of Nataraja (dancing Siva).
• Paintings:
  • Classical Chola murals adorn the sanctum and corridor walls of the temples at Narthamalai and Tanjore.

Reference Samacheer Books

11th New History Books 2026 – 2027

11th Old History Books