In India, the prehistoric period is divided into the Paleolithic (Old Stone Age), Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age), Neolithic (New Stone Age), and Metal Age. However, these periods were not uniform throughout the Indian subcontinent.
The dating of the prehistoric period is done scientifically. The technique of radiocarbon dating is commonly used for this purpose. It is based on measuring the loss of carbon in organic materials over a period of time.
Another dating method is known as dendro-chronology. It refers to the number of tree rings in wood. By counting the number of tree rings in the wood, the date the wood arrived at is determined.
Palaeolithic or Old Stone Age
The Old Stone Age sites are widely found in various parts of the Indian subcontinent. These sites are generally located near water sources. Several rock shelters and caves used by the Paleolithic people are scattered across the subcontinent.
They also lived rarely in huts made of leaves. Some of the famous sites of the Old Stone Age in India are:
a. The Soan Valley and Potwar Plateau in northwest India.
b. The Siwalik hills in north India.
c. Bhimpetka in Madhya Pradesh.
d. Adamgarh hill in Narmada valley.
e. Kurnool in Andhra Pradesh and
f. Attirampakkam near Chennai.
In the Old Stone Age, food was obtained by hunting animals and gathering edible plants and tubers. Therefore, these people are called hunter-gatherers. They used stone tools and hand-sized and flaked-off large pebbles for hunting animals.
Stone implements are made of a hard rock known as quartzite. Large pebbles are often found in river terraces. The hunting of large animals would have required the combined effort of a group of people with large stone axes.
We have little knowledge about their language and communication. Their way of life was modified with the passage of time, as they made attempts to domesticate animals, make crude pots, and grow some plants.
A few Old Stone Age paintings have also been found on rocks at Bhimbetka and other places. The period before 10000 B.C. is assigned to the Old Stone Age.
Mesolithic or Middle Stone Age
The next stage of human life is called the Mesolithic or Middle Stone Age which falls roughly from 10000 B.C. to 6000 B.C. It was the transitional phase between the Paleolithic Age and Neolithic Age.
Mesolithic remains are found in Langhanj in Gujarat, Adamgarh in Madhya Pradesh, and also in some places of Rajasthan, Utter Pradesh, and Bihar.
The paintings and engravings found at the rock shelters give an idea about the social life and economic activities of Mesolithic people. In the sites of the Mesolithic Age, different types of stone tools are found.
These are tiny stone artefacts, often not more than five centimetres in size, and therefore called microliths. The hunting-gathering pattern of life continued during this period. However, there seems to have been a shift from big animal hunting to small animal hunting and fishing.
The use of bow and arrow also began during this period. Also, there began a tendency to settle for longer periods in an area. Therefore, the domestication of animals, horticulture, and primitive cultivation started.
Animal bones are found in these sites and these include dogs, deer, boar, and ostrich. Occasionally, burials of the dead along with some microliths and shells seem to have been practiced.
Neolithic Age
Remarkable progress is noticed in human civilization in the Neolithic Age. It is approximately dated from 6000 B.C to 4000 B.C. Neolithic remains are found in various parts of India.
These include the Kashmir valley, Chirand in Bihar, Belan valley in Uttar Pradesh, and several places of the Deccan.
The important Neolithic sites excavated in south India are Maski, Brahmagiri, Hallur, and Kodekal in Karnataka, Paiyampalli in Tamil Nadu, and Utnur in Andhra Pradesh.
The chief characteristic features of the Neolithic culture are the practice of agriculture, domestication of animals, polishing of stone tools, and the manufacture of pottery.
In fact, the cultivation of plants and domestication of animals led to the emergence of village communities based on sedentary life. There was a great improvement in the technology of making tools and other equipment used by man.
Stone tools were now polished. The polished axes were found to be more effective tools for hunting and cutting trees.
Mudbrick houses were built instead of grass huts. Wheels were used to make pottery. Pottery was used for cooking as well as storage of food grains. Large urns were used as coffins for the burial of the dead.
There was also improvement in agriculture. Wheat, barley, rice, and millet were cultivated in different areas at different points in time. Rice cultivation was extensive in eastern India. Domestication of sheep, goats, and cattle was widely prevalent.
Cattle were used for cultivation and for transport. The people of the Neolithic Age used clothes
made of cotton and wool.
Metal Age
The Neolithic period was followed by the Chalcolithic (copper-stone) period when copper and bronze came to be used. The new technology of smelting metal ore and crafting metal artefacts is an important development in human civilization.
However, the use of stone tools was not given up. Some of the micro-lithic tools continued to be essential items. People began to travel for long distances to obtain metal ores. This led to a network of Chalcolithic cultures and the Chalcolithic cultures were found in many parts of India.
Generally, Chalcolithic cultures had grown in river valleys. Most importantly, the Harappan culture is considered a part of Chalcolithic culture.
In South India, the river valleys of the Godavari, Krishna, Tungabhadra, Pennar, and Kaveri were settled by farming communities during this period.
Although they were not using metals at the beginning of the Metal Age, there is evidence of copper and bronze artefacts by the end of the second millennium B.C.
Several bronze and copper objects, beads, terracotta figurines, and pottery were found at Paiyampalli in Tamil Nadu.
The Chalcolithic Age is followed by the Iron Age. Iron is frequently referred to in the Vedas. The Iron Age of the southern peninsula is often related to Megalithic Burials. Megalith means Large Stone.
The burial pits were covered with these stones. Such graves are extensively found in South India. Some of the important megalithic sites are Hallur and Maski in Karnataka, Nagarjunakonda in Andhra Pradesh, and Adichchanallur in Tamil Nadu.
Black and red pottery, iron artefacts such as hoes and sickles, and small weapons were found in the burial pits.
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